Art and culture

Birsa Munda

1. Birsa Munda (1875–1900) was a prominent tribal leader, freedom fighter, and folk hero from India.
2. He was born on November 15, 1875, in Ulihatu village, Ranch, Jharkhand.
3. He belonged to the Munda tribe, a prominent tribal community in the Chotanagpur plateau.
4. He attended missionary schools; learned about Western education and Christianity but later rejected colonial influences.
Struggles Against British Colonial Rule
Opposition to Exploitation: He fought against the oppressive British policies and the exploitation of tribal lands by landlords (dikus) and the colonial government.
Land Rights Movement: He advocated for tribal autonomy and protection of land through the “Ulgulan” (The Great Rebellion).
Religious and Social Reforms
Spiritual Leadership: He declared himself a prophet and began preaching the message of monotheism, unity, and social reform.
Cultural Revival: He encouraged tribal people to return to their indigenous culture and reject superstitions, alcohol consumption, and missionary conversions.
Religious Movement: He founded a new faith combining tribal beliefs with elements of his revolutionary ideology.
About the Ulgulan Movement
1. He led the Ulgulan (Revolt) in the late 1890s to reclaim tribal lands from British control.
2. It was aimed to establish a self-governing tribal system and abolish feudal landlordism.
3. He organized the Mundas and other tribal communities to resist through guerrilla warfare.
4. He was arrested by British authorities in 1900 and imprisoned in Ranchi Jail, where he died on June 9, 1900 under mysterious circumstances.
Legacy
1. He played a pivotal role in inspiring the tribal identity and movements that led to the formation of Jharkhand state in 2000.
2. He was honored as “Bhagwan” n(God) by his followers and remembered as a symbol of tribal pride and resistance.
3. Tributes: His birth anniversary, November 15 is celebrated as Jharkhand Foundation Day and Birsa Munda Jayanti.

President speech in Asian Buddhist Summit:
• “Buddha Dharma can bring peace, real peace, to Asia and the world — a peace free from not only physical violence but also from all forms of greed and hatred.”
• “If one word could capture the Buddha Dhamma, it had to be karuna or compassion, which is what the world needs today.”
• “The preservation of the Buddha’s teachings has been a great collective endeavour.”
• “The middle path and four noble truths of the Buddha offer timeless solutions.”
• “India reaffirms its commitment to strengthen the ‘Dhamma Setu’, the Buddhist bridge connecting Asian nations.”

What is meant by “classical language”?

1 Languages like Chinese, Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, and Latin are universally accepted as classical due to their ancient literary and philosophical contributions.
2 Classical languages often provide root words or affixes to modern languages; for example, Latin “intelligentia” in “artificial intelligence.”
3 The term “classical” became common in the 16th century, particularly in Europe, to distinguish refined languages from so-called “barbaric” or vernacular ones.
4 The Union Cabinet extended the “classical language” tag to Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, and Bengali. Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia already enjoy this status.
5 In India, there are over 1,000 “mother tongues,” around 121 “languages,” 22 “scheduled languages” in the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution, and 11 “classical languages.”
6 Pali and Prakrit(s) are considered classical but are not part of the 8th Schedule, unlike some scheduled languages.

Why is the classification of languages problematic in modern India?
1 Promotes Division: The classification of languages as “classical” creates divisions, similar to the British “divide and rule” policy.
2 The focus on a few “classical” languages risks neglecting over a thousand other mother tongues, as evidenced by the Census data from 2011, where many languages were not recognized officially. India’s language pyramid has 1,369 accepted “mother tongues” (2011 Census), with only 121 considered “languages.”
3 Such classifications, while bolstering majoritarian pride, neglect thousands of mother tongues and undermine linguistic diversity, leading to the extinction of many languages.

National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC)

1. It will be located at Lothal, Gujrat. The Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways (MoPSW) is spearheading this initiative.
2. The NMHC aligns with the Prime Minister’s vision of showcasing India’s 4,500-year-old maritime heritage.
3. The project is expected to generate approximately 22,000 jobs, comprising 15,000 direct and 7,000 indirect employment opportunities.
4. The construction of a Light House Museum, part of Phase 1B, will be funded by the Directorate General of Lighthouses and Lightships (DGLL).
5. The Governing Council which is chaired by the Minister of Ports, Shipping & Waterways, will oversee this society for the project’s implementation, management, and operation.
6. Beneficiaries:  NMHC will benefit local communities, tourists, researchers, government bodies, educational institutions, cultural organizations, conservation groups, and businesses.

Doddalathur megalithic site:

A team of history and archaeology scholars and students from the University of Mysore have embarked on an excavation of megalithic burial sites in Chamarajanagar district (Karnataka).

About Doddalathur megalithic site:
• Location: Doddalathur village, Hanur taluk, Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. Situated in a small valley formed by the Male Mahadeshwara Hill ranges.
• Discovery: Identified by C. Krishnamurti of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1961.
• Period: The site corresponds to the Iron Age, broadly placed between 1200 BC and 300 CE in South India.
• Significance: Contains hundreds of megalithic burials characterized by circles made of large boulders. Many burials remain intact despite agricultural expansion and land development.
• Current excavation: Led by a team from the University of Mysore and the Mythic Society, Bengaluru, with a focus on understanding megalithic-iron age culture and providing field training to archaeology students.
About Megalithic sites:
• Definition: Megaliths are large stones used in prehistoric monuments or burial structures.
• Purpose: Constructed as burial sites or commemorative memorials (non-sepulchral).
◦ Burial types: Include dolmenoid cists, cairn circles, capstones, and urns or sarcophagi made of terracotta.
◦ Memorial types: Include non-sepulchral sites such as menhirs.
• Types of Megalithic structures:
◦ Stone circles (Cromlechs): Circular arrangements of stones, sometimes used as burial markers.
◦ Dolmen: A chamber formed by placing a large capstone on support stones, often used as tombs.
◦ Cist: A small stone-built coffin-like box used to hold bodies, often placed underground.
◦ Monolith: Single standing stones, sometimes used as markers or commemorative symbols.
◦ Capstone style: Single horizontal stones placed over burial chambers without support stones.
• Timeline: Most megaliths in India date to the Iron Age (1500 BC to 500 BC), with some predating this period up to 2000 BC.
• Geographic spread: Found throughout Peninsular India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

Chalukyas
▪ Overview:
◦ The Chalukyas ruled parts of Southern and Central India between the 6th century and the 12th century.
◦ The kingdom of Chalukyas was centred around the Raichur Doab, between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
▪ Three distinct but related Chalukya dynasties:
◦ Badami Chalukyas: They were the earliest Chalukyas with their capital at Badami (Vatapi) in Karnataka.
• Their rule started in the mid-6th century and declined after the death of their greatest king, Pulakesin II in 642 AD.
◦ Eastern Chalukyas: Emerged after the death of Pulakesin II in Eastern Deccan with the capital at Vengi.
• They ruled till the 11th century.
◦ Western Chalukyas: They were the descendants of the Badami Chalukyas.
• They emerged in the late 10th century and ruled from Kalyani.

Nalanda

Source: TH
1. Nalanda was an ancient centre of learning and a revered Buddhist site. It was rediscovered in the 19th century, its history goes back to the Gupta dynasty.
2. It was founded by Emperor Kumaragupta-I of the Gupta dynasty around 427 AD.
3. It flourished with the support of the Pala kings and the monks of Nalanda, who were patronized by the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya.
4. It served as a university where students studied music, Sanskrit, astronomy, yoga, Ayurveda, and philosophy.
5. Nalanda’s faculty included renowned names in Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism, such as Aryabhata, Harsha, Dharmapala, Nagarjuna, Dharmakirti, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Chandrakirti, and Silabhadra.
6. Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang spent five years at Nalanda during the reign of Harshavardhan in the 7th century, documenting its rigorous admission tests and scholarly environment.
7. It is recognized as a celebrated Buddhist site after Alexander Cunningham identified it based on Hiuen Tsang’s travel notes and epigraphic records.
8.  A king of Sumatra once requested a Pala king’s permission to endow a monastery at Nalanda, highlighting its international connections.
9. Decline and Destruction:
i) It was attacked and ransacked by Bakhtiyar Khalji around 1200 AD, resulting in the destruction of its vast collection of books. Satish Chandra’s “History of Medieval India” and Minhaj-i-Siraj’s “Tabaqat-i-Nasiri” detail these raids.
ii) Historian D.N. Jha contested claims of Nalanda’s destruction, suggesting Bakhtiyar Khalji captured a different fortified monastery, not Nalanda.
iii) Namit Arora argued that many Buddhist sites were abandoned or converted into Brahminical sites before the Turko-Persian invasions, with Nalanda being rediscovered only in the 19th century.

Mahakaleshwar Temple

Due to heavy rainfall, it has recently caused the collapse of a boundary wall near the Mahakal Temple in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, killing two people.

About Mahakaleshwar Temple

1. Location: The Mahakal Temple is located in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh. It is situated on the banks of the holy river, Shipra.
2. Dedicated to: It is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas in India, which are considered the most sacred abodes of Shiva.
3. Distinctive feature: The temple’s importance lies in its unique representation of Shiva in the form of the Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga which is believed to be a Swayambhu (self-manifested) linga, emerging naturally from the earth.
4. Architecture and Structure:
1. The Mahakal Temple is an architectural marvel, blending intricate design elements that showcase the rich cultural heritage of India.
2. The temple complex is expansive, with multiple shrines dedicated to various gods and goddesses, including Omkareshwara, Ganesh and Parvati.
3. The main sanctum houses the Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga, and the temple’s towering Shikhar (spire) dominates the skyline of Ujjain.
4. One unique feature of the temple is the Bhasma Aarti, a ritual performed every morning during which the linga is bathed in sacred ash (bhasma). This ritual is carried out in the early hours and symbolizes the concept of life, death, and rebirth.
5. Spiritual Significance:
The Mahakal Temple holds a special place in Hindu cosmology and mythology.
It is mentioned in several ancient scriptures, including the Puranas where Ujjain (referred to as Avantika) is depicted as a major center for spiritual and scholarly pursuits.
The temple is believed to be the place where time itself is under the control of Mahakala, or Shiva, who is the lord of time and death.
6. Festivals and Celebrations:
The temple is particularly vibrant during Mahashivratri which is an annual festival dedicated to Lord Shiva.
Another important celebration is the Nag Panchami during which special offerings are made to the serpent gods, considered companions of Lord Shiva.
The temple also plays a key role in the Simhastha Kumbh Mela held in Ujjain every twelve years.

Mehrauli Archaeological Park

Mehrauli Archaeological Park is one of Delhi’s most historically rich and significant areas, showcasing over 1,000 years of continuous occupation. It is adjacent to the famous Qutub Minar and includes over 100 historically significant monuments, reflecting various dynasties’ architectural and cultural legacies.


Mehrauli archaeological park overview:
1 Year of establishment: The area has been inhabited for over 1,000 years, with structures dating back to the 11th century.
2 Constructed by: The site contains contributions from various rulers, including the Tomar Rajputs, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Lodis, Mughals, and even the British.
3 Location: Situated in the Mehrauli area of South Delhi, adjacent to the Qutub Minar and Qutb complex, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Features of architecture:
1 Lodhi and Mughal Influence: Monuments like the Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb showcase a blend of Lodi and Mughal architectural styles, with a focus on refinement and the use of better materials.
2 Significant monuments:
◦ Tomb of Balban (1287 CE): Contains India’s first true arch and dome.
◦ Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb (1526-1535 CE): An important 16th-century monument showcasing the transition from Lodi to Mughal architectural elements.
◦ Rajon Ki Baoli: A stepwell, reflecting the importance of water management systems in historical Delhi.
3 Gandhak ki Baoli and Quli Khan’s Tomb: Further examples of the ingenuity and design employed during various reigns, particularly during the late Mughal period.
4 British-era structures: The park also contains remnants of the British colonial era, showcasing a wide timeline of Delhi’s history.