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🔘Notes on Somatic Cells🔘

Somatic cells account for all the cells of the body except reproductive cells. Other than gametes, stem cells and germs cells, all the cells of a multicellular organism are known as somatic cells.

Diploid somatic cells undergo mitosis and are responsible for growth, repair and regeneration.

Somatic terms originate from the word ‘Soma’, which means ‘body’. They make up the entire organism other than cells, which have a reproductive function or are undifferentiated, e.g. stem cells.

🔹Somatic Cells Characteristics

➖Somatic cells are responsible for the growth and development of an organism
➖They are required for repair and regeneration
➖Somatic cells undergo mitosis and contain the same set of chromosomes as the organism
➖Somatic cells have a diploid set of chromosomes as compared to gametes, which are produced by meiosis (reduction division) and have a haploid set of chromosomes
➖Many species like wheat have a varied set of chromosomes in their somatic cells, e.g. hexaploid, triploid, tetraploid, etc.
➖Somatic cells undergo mutation more frequently as compared to germ cells
➖Somatic cells are used for cloning by which identical clone of an individual is produced
➖“Somatic cell nuclear transfer” is one such process where the nucleus of a somatic cell is transferred to an ovum cell. It is then implanted into the uterus and we get the identical clone. “Dolly the sheep” was cloned from an adult somatic cell
➖Somatic cells are used to conserve genetic information of animals
➖Genetic engineering and manipulation of somatic cells is controversial but of great importance to research and biotechnology


🔹Somatic Cells Types and Examples

There are numerous types of somatic cells. In our body, there are 220 types of somatic cells. Many cells are differentiated to perform various specific functions.

Some of the specialised somatic cells are:

➖Skin Cells:
They have a unique quality of regeneration.
Nerve Cells: Neurons are specialised cells, which receive and propagate signals to and from the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. They are responsible for the control and coordination of bodily functions.
Muscle Cells: Myocytes are specialised cells to perform different functions. There are three main types of muscles:
Smooth muscle – Internal lining of internal organs, digestive tract and urinary tract
Cardiac muscle – Present in heart and helps in the pumping of blood
Skeletal muscle – Attached to bones and helps in body movement

➖Blood Cells: Blood is composed of many differentiated cells:
Erythrocytes – Red blood cells (RBCs) carry oxygen to different tissues. In humans, RBCs are biconcave and anucleated
Leucocytes – White blood cells (WBCs) provide protection against foreign antigens and infections. There are five main types of WBCs
Platelets – Thrombocytes are responsible for blood clotting


EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

★Pre-fertilisation
★Fertilisation
★Post-fertilisation

🟦PRE-FERTILISATION 🟦

★all the events prior to fusion of gametes are included in it.

★It includes gametogenesis and gamete transfer.

★[A]★ Gametogenesis is the process of formation of male and female gametes.
☆Gametes are haploid cells which may be similar or dissimilar in structure.

★In algae, both gametes are
similar in structure called homogametes (isogametes).

★In higher organism that reproduces
sexually, two morphologically distinct gametes are formed called heterogametes,
▪︎ male gametes are called antherozoid or sperm and
▪︎female gametes are called ovum or egg.

★ heterogametes
In fungi and plants,

★homothallic and monoecious terms are used to denote the bisexual
condition and heterothallic

★dioecious are used for unisexual condition. In flowering
plants,

♣︎the unisexual male flower is staminate, i.e., bearing stamens,

♣︎while the female is
pistillate or bearing pistils.

★In animals, species which possess both male and female reproductive organs in same individual are called bisexual or hermaphrodites (earthworm, sponges, tapeworm etc.)


★both having either male or female reproductive organs are called unisexual (cockroach,
human).

★Gametes are always haploid( having half set of chromosome ), although organisms may be haploid and diploid.

★Diploid organisms form gametes by meiotic division.

●The organisms
belonging to algae, fungi, and bryophytes have haploid plant body

● pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms and most of animals are diploid ( having double set of
chromosome )

★ In diploid organisms, gamete mother cell (meiocyte) undergoes meiosis in which one set of
chromosome is present in gametes


🔠🔠🔠🔠🔠 🔠🔠🔠🔠

May this Holi bring luck for life and the fulfillment of your desires and dreams.

✅🔻😄🔵✅


📚Notes on Trigonometric Equations and Identities📚


A function f(x) is said to be periodic if there exists some T > 0 such that f(x+T) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f(x).

In case, the T in the definition of period of f(x) is the smallest positive real number then this ‘T’ is called the period of f(x).

Periods of various trigonometric functions are listed below:

1) sin x has period 2π

2) cos x has period 2π

3) tan x has period π

4) sin(ax+b), cos (ax+b), sec(ax+b), cosec (ax+b) all are of period 2π/a

5) tan (ax+b) and cot (ax+b) have π/a as their period

6) |sin (ax+b)|, |cos (ax+b)|, |sec(ax+b)|, |cosec (ax+b)| all are of period π/a

7) |tan (ax+b)| and |cot (ax+b)| have π/2a as their period

➖Sum and Difference Formulae of Trigonometric Ratios

1) sin(a + ß) = sin(a)cos(ß) + cos(a)sin(ß)

2) sin(a – ß) = sin(a)cos(ß) – cos(a)sin(ß)

3) cos(a + ß) = cos(a)cos(ß) – sin(a)sin(ß)

4) cos(a – ß) = cos(a)cos(ß) + sin(a)sin(ß)

5) tan(a + ß) = [tan(a) + tan (ß)]/ [1 - tan(a)tan (ß)]

6)tan(a - ß) = [tan(a) - tan (ß)]/ [1 + tan (a) tan (ß)]

7) tan (π/4 + θ) = (1 + tan θ)/(1 - tan θ)

8) tan (π/4 - θ) = (1 - tan θ)/(1 + tan θ)

9) cot (a + ß) = [cot(a) . cot (ß) - 1]/ [cot (a) +cot (ß)]

10) cot (a - ß) = [cot(a) . cot (ß) + 1]/ [cot (ß) - cot (a)]

➖Double or Triple -Angle Identities

1) sin 2x = 2sin x cos x

2) cos2x = cos2x – sin2x = 1 – 2sin2x = 2cos2x – 1

3) tan 2x = 2 tan x / (1-tan 2x)

4) sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3x

5) cos3x = 4 cos3x – 3 cosx

6) tan 3x = (3 tan x - tan3x) / (1- 3tan 2x)

➖For angles A, B and C, we have

1) sin (A + B +C) = sinAcosBcosC + cosAsinBcosC + cosAcosBsinC - sinAsinBsinC

2) cos (A + B +C) = cosAcosBcosC- cosAsinBsinC - sinAcosBsinC - sinAsinBcosC

3) tan (A + B +C) = [tan A + tan B + tan C –tan A tan B tan C]/ [1- tan Atan B - tan B tan C –tan A tan C

4) cot (A + B +C) = [cot A cot B cot C – cotA - cot B - cot C]/ [cot A cot B + cot Bcot C + cot A cotC–1]


➖List of some other trigonometric formulas:

1) 2sinAcosB = sin(A + B) + sin (A - B)

2) 2cosAsinB = sin(A + B) - sin (A - B)

3) 2cosAcosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B)

4) 2sinAsinB = cos(A - B) - cos (A + B)

5) sin A + sin B = 2 sin [(A+B)/2] cos [(A-B)/2]

6) sin A - sin B = 2 sin [(A-B)/2] cos [(A+B)/2]

7) cosA + cos B = 2 cos [(A+B)/2] cos [(A-B)/2]

8) cosA - cos B = 2 sin [(A+B)/2] sin [(B-A)/2]

9) tanA ± tanB = sin (A ± B)/ cos A cos B

10)cot A ± cot B = sin (B ± A)/ sin A sin B

➖Method of solving a trigonometric equation:

1) If possible, reduce the equation in terms of any one variable, preferably x. Then solve the equation as you used to in case of a single variable.

2) Try to derive the linear/algebraic simultaneous equations from the given trigonometric equations and solve them as algebraic simultaneous equations.

3) At times, you might be required to make certain substitutions. It would be beneficial when the system has only two trigonometric functions.

➖Some results which are useful for solving trigonometric equations:
1) sin θ = sina and cosθ = cosa ⇒ θ = 2nπ + a

2) sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ

3) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ = (2n + 1)π/2

4) tan θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ

5) sinθ = sina⇒ θ = nπ + (-1)na where a ∈ [–π/2, π/2]

6) cosθ= cos a ⇒ θ = 2nπ ± a, where a ∈[0,π]

7) tanθ = tana⇒ θ = nπ+ a, where a ∈[–π/2, π/2]

8) sinθ = 1 ⇒ θ= (4n + 1)π/2

9) sin θ = -1 ⇒ θ = (4n - 1) π /2

10) sin θ = -1 ⇒ θ = (2n +1) π /2

11) |sinθ| = 1⇒ θ =2nπ

12) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ =(2n + 1)

13) |cosθ| = 1⇒ θ =nπ


🔥Periodic Table Chemistry Tricks 🔥

Group 1 - Lina Kare Rab Se Fariyad
Elements - Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

Group 2 - Beta Mange Car Safari Baap Razi
Elements - Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra

Group 13 - Bengan, Aaloo, Gazar In Thella
Elements - B, Al, Ga, In, Tl

Group 14 - Chemistry Sir Gives Sanki Problems.
Elements - C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb

Group 15 - Nepal Pakistan Australia Sab Bikhari (No offence!!)
Elements - N, P, As, Sb, Bi

Group 16 - Old Style Se Tepo
Elements - O, S, Se, Te, Po

Group 17 - Fir Call kar Bahaar AayI Aunty
Elements - F, Cl, Br, I, At

Group 18 - Heena Neena Aur Kareena Xenath Rangeen
Elements - He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

D blocks elements -

Esi TV Corporation Mange Fir raha hein, Koi Ni Kuch nahi Janta
Elements - Sc, T, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn


🌟 Some Important FULL FORMS

💫1. ICSI : Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection
💫2. IVF : In-vitro fertilisation
💫3. ET : Embryo transfer
💫4. SCA : Sickle cell Anaemia
💫5. PKU : Phenylketonuria
💫6. NHC : Non-histone Chromosomal proteins
💫7. snRNA : Small Nuclear RNA
💫8. hnRNA : Heterogenous Nuclear RNA
💫9. sRNA : Soluble RNA
💫10. UTR : Untranslated Regions
💫11. HGP : Human Genome Project
💫12. ELSI : Ethical, Legal & Social Issues
💫13. BAC : Bacterial Artificial Chromosome
💫14. YAC : Yeast Artificial Chromosome
💫15. ESTs : Expressed Sequence Tags
💫16. SNPs : Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
💫17. VNTR : Variable Number of Tandem Repeats
💫18. SCRR : School of Cytogenetics & Radiation Reserch
💫19. IARI : Indian Agricultural Research Institute (New Delhi)
💫20. CMI : Cell - Mediated Immunity
💫21. MALT : Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissue


📚Notes on Trigonometric Equations and Identities📚


A function f(x) is said to be periodic if there exists some T > 0 such that f(x+T) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f(x).

In case, the T in the definition of period of f(x) is the smallest positive real number then this ‘T’ is called the period of f(x).

Periods of various trigonometric functions are listed below:

1) sin x has period 2π

2) cos x has period 2π

3) tan x has period π

4) sin(ax+b), cos (ax+b), sec(ax+b), cosec (ax+b) all are of period 2π/a

5) tan (ax+b) and cot (ax+b) have π/a as their period

6) |sin (ax+b)|, |cos (ax+b)|, |sec(ax+b)|, |cosec (ax+b)| all are of period π/a

7) |tan (ax+b)| and |cot (ax+b)| have π/2a as their period

➖Sum and Difference Formulae of Trigonometric Ratios

1) sin(a + ß) = sin(a)cos(ß) + cos(a)sin(ß)

2) sin(a – ß) = sin(a)cos(ß) – cos(a)sin(ß)

3) cos(a + ß) = cos(a)cos(ß) – sin(a)sin(ß)

4) cos(a – ß) = cos(a)cos(ß) + sin(a)sin(ß)

5) tan(a + ß) = [tan(a) + tan (ß)]/ [1 - tan(a)tan (ß)]

6)tan(a - ß) = [tan(a) - tan (ß)]/ [1 + tan (a) tan (ß)]

7) tan (π/4 + θ) = (1 + tan θ)/(1 - tan θ)

8) tan (π/4 - θ) = (1 - tan θ)/(1 + tan θ)

9) cot (a + ß) = [cot(a) . cot (ß) - 1]/ [cot (a) +cot (ß)]

10) cot (a - ß) = [cot(a) . cot (ß) + 1]/ [cot (ß) - cot (a)]

➖Double or Triple -Angle Identities

1) sin 2x = 2sin x cos x

2) cos2x = cos2x – sin2x = 1 – 2sin2x = 2cos2x – 1

3) tan 2x = 2 tan x / (1-tan 2x)

4) sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3x

5) cos3x = 4 cos3x – 3 cosx

6) tan 3x = (3 tan x - tan3x) / (1- 3tan 2x)

➖For angles A, B and C, we have

1) sin (A + B +C) = sinAcosBcosC + cosAsinBcosC + cosAcosBsinC - sinAsinBsinC

2) cos (A + B +C) = cosAcosBcosC- cosAsinBsinC - sinAcosBsinC - sinAsinBcosC

3) tan (A + B +C) = [tan A + tan B + tan C –tan A tan B tan C]/ [1- tan Atan B - tan B tan C –tan A tan C

4) cot (A + B +C) = [cot A cot B cot C – cotA - cot B - cot C]/ [cot A cot B + cot Bcot C + cot A cotC–1]


➖List of some other trigonometric formulas:

1) 2sinAcosB = sin(A + B) + sin (A - B)

2) 2cosAsinB = sin(A + B) - sin (A - B)

3) 2cosAcosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B)

4) 2sinAsinB = cos(A - B) - cos (A + B)

5) sin A + sin B = 2 sin [(A+B)/2] cos [(A-B)/2]

6) sin A - sin B = 2 sin [(A-B)/2] cos [(A+B)/2]

7) cosA + cos B = 2 cos [(A+B)/2] cos [(A-B)/2]

8) cosA - cos B = 2 sin [(A+B)/2] sin [(B-A)/2]

9) tanA ± tanB = sin (A ± B)/ cos A cos B

10)cot A ± cot B = sin (B ± A)/ sin A sin B

➖Method of solving a trigonometric equation:

1) If possible, reduce the equation in terms of any one variable, preferably x. Then solve the equation as you used to in case of a single variable.

2) Try to derive the linear/algebraic simultaneous equations from the given trigonometric equations and solve them as algebraic simultaneous equations.

3) At times, you might be required to make certain substitutions. It would be beneficial when the system has only two trigonometric functions.

➖Some results which are useful for solving trigonometric equations:
1) sin θ = sina and cosθ = cosa ⇒ θ = 2nπ + a

2) sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ

3) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ = (2n + 1)π/2

4) tan θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ

5) sinθ = sina⇒ θ = nπ + (-1)na where a ∈ [–π/2, π/2]

6) cosθ= cos a ⇒ θ = 2nπ ± a, where a ∈[0,π]

7) tanθ = tana⇒ θ = nπ+ a, where a ∈[–π/2, π/2]

8) sinθ = 1 ⇒ θ= (4n + 1)π/2

9) sin θ = -1 ⇒ θ = (4n - 1) π /2

10) sin θ = -1 ⇒ θ = (2n +1) π /2

11) |sinθ| = 1⇒ θ =2nπ

12) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ =(2n + 1)

13) |cosθ| = 1⇒ θ =nπ


✍️Notes on Environmental Chemistry:

🔹Components of Environment:

➖Atmosphere:
This comprises a blanket of gaseous layer around earth.

➖Hydrosphere: This comprises about 96% of earth’s surface & includes all sources of water like oceans rivers lakes, glaciers, ground water etc.

➖Lithosphere: It refers to earth’s solid crust containing the outer mineral cover. It comprises soil, minerals, organic matter etc.

➖ Biosphere: It refers to the domain of living organism in covalent with atmosphere hydrosphere as well as lithosphere.

🔹Environmental Pollution :
Process of contamination of the environment with harmful wastes arising mainly from human activities.

➖Pollutant: Any substance or species produced either by a natural source or by human activity, which produces adverse effect on the environment.

➖Contaminant: A substance which does not occurs in nature but is introduced by human activity into the atmosphere affecting its composition.

➖Source: The site from which the pollution or contaminants originate.

➖Sink: The material or medium which consumes or interacts with a long lived pollutant is called sink.

➖Receptor : Anything that is affected by the pollutants.

➖Threshold limit value (TLV) : This indicates the permissible limit of a pollutant in atmosphere to which a healthy worker is exposed during hours a day or 40 hours a week for life time without any adverse effects. TLV are determined by experimentation on animals, by use of medical knowledge, epidemiology surveys & environmental studies.

🔹Tropospheric pollution or Air pollution:
It is the atmosphere condition in which the presence of certain concentration produce harmful effects on man and his environment. These substances include:

(i) Gases such as oxides of sulphur, CO, oxide of N2 and hydrocarbons

(ii) Particulate matter such as dust, smoke, fumes etc.

(iii) Radioactive material & many others.

➖Primary pollutants : These are the pollutants which are emitted directly from the sources. Some examples are:

➖Particulate Matter : Such as ash, smoke, dust, fumes etc.

➖Inorganic gases : Such as sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide etc.


🔹Particulate matter:

➖Soot:
produced by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fossils fuels such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas, wood etc in insufficient supply of oxygen.

➖Metal particles: These are released by various metal finishing operation. The micro particles of toxic metal & SO2 gas present in the polluted atmosphere get absorbed on the particles rendering them highly toxic.

➖Metal oxides : They are generated by combustion of fuels containing metallic compounds.

➖Lead salts: Their source is lead tetraethyl (Pb(C2H5)4) which is added to gasoline to improve its antiknock property. In order to avoid deposition of PbO suitable amounts of C2H4Cl2 & C2H4Br2 are added to gasoline along with Pb(C2H5)4.

➖Fly ash: It originates from the combustion of high ash fossil. It contains partially burnt particles of the fuels.

➖Asbestos dust: It originates from industrial units manufacturing asbestos sheets, gaskets ropes etc. Asbestos flowing & asbestos insulations also contribute towards asbestos dust in the atmosphere.

➖Solid Hydrocarbons: These are emitted from petroleum refineries & comprise of paraffins, olefins & aromatics.

➖Dust Particulates: Originate from natural, domestic, industrial or agricultural sources. These are thrown into atmosphere by volcanic eruptions, blowing of dust by wind, mining operations etc.

➖Acid mist : Sulphuric acid mist is produced when SO3 present in the atmosphere comes in contact with moisture. Nitric acid mist is produced when oxides of nitrogen, viz, NO & NO2, undergo the series of reactions in the atmosphere.


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🔰 Pituitary Hormone 🔰

The pituitary gland, located in the brain, is often referred to as the "master gland" because it produces and regulates several hormones that control various physiological processes in the body. Some of the key pituitary hormones include:

➖ Growth hormone (GH): Growth hormone stimulates cell growth and reproduction, and also regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

➖ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the production of cortisol by the adrenal glands, which regulates metabolism and helps the body respond to stress.

➖ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates the growth and development of follicles in the ovaries in women, and promotes sperm production in men.

➖ Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH triggers ovulation in women and testosterone production in men.

➖ Prolactin (PRL): Prolactin stimulates milk production in women and also plays a role in regulation of the menstrual cycle and sexual function.

➖ Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH stimulates the production and release of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism and energy levels.

➖ Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): ADH regulates water balance in the body by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys.


🔰Proteins🔰

✍️Introduction
➖Proteins, which are basically biomolecules, play wide range of functions in the body of a living organism.
➖Proteins are made up of tiny elements of different types of amino acids.
➖A sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is known particularly by the sequence of a gene; gene is encoded in the genetic code.
➖After formation, proteins exist for a fixed period of time and are then degraded and recycled.
➖The proteins get recycled by the cell's machinery by the process of protein turnover.
➖Most of the proteins contain linear polymers made up of series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids.
➖The amino acids in a polypeptide chain are connected by peptide bonds.
➖The peptide bond, usually, has two resonance forms, which contribute some double-bond characters.

✍️Protein Structure
➖Most of the proteins illustrate unique 3-dimensional structures.
➖However, proteins have not a rigid structure, but rather, proteins may vary between several related structures especially when they perform their functions.

✍️Types of Protein
➖Enzymes −
enzymes play important role especially during the breakdown of molecules. Enzymes are also required for the digestion and growth of the cell.
Structural Proteins − such type of proteins provide strength to cells, tissues, and organs.
➖Signaling Proteins − Such proteins facilitate cells to communicate with each other by providing signals.
➖Defensive Proteins − Such proteins help organisms to fight with infection and support damaged tissue in healing fast.
➖Hormone − Some hormones are proteins that help in metabolic activities.


✅ List of Micronutrients

➖ Iron:
It is essential for energy transfer, nitrogen reduction, and fixation. Iron, along with sulfur, acts as a catalyst in the formation of other reactions. Yellow leaves are the symptom of Iron deficiency.

➖ Chlorine: It is the nutrient which helps in osmosis and ionic balance. It also plays a key role in the process of photosynthesis. Decreased resistance, reduced plant growth are the symptoms of chlorine deficiency.

➖ Manganese: It is essential for photosynthesis and nitrogen metabolism. Premature leaf drop and delayed maturity are the symptoms of manganese deficiency. Manganese is abundant in wet soils, whereas dry soil has limited manganese.

➖ Boron: It helps in the formation and strengthening of the cell walls. It helps in cell division, germination of pollen, flowering, and fruiting. Lack of boron can lead to reduced production of grains and seeds.

➖ Zinc: It is an essential element which helps in photosynthesis, energy production and regulation of growth. Zinc deficiency may cause slower maturity and reduction in the size of the leaf. Zinc deficiencies often occur during the cold, wet spring season.

➖ Copper: It is essential for proper photosynthesis, grain production and to the strengthening of a cell wall. Stunted growth, yellow leaves are the symptoms of copper deficiency. There will not be enough copper in many soils.

➖ Molybdenum: It is responsible for pollen formation. It is also responsible for nitrogen fixation. Reduced fruit or grain growth are the symptoms of Molybdenum deficiency. Sandy soils in the humid region are the places where zinc deficiencies are found.


🔷Notes on Friction🔷

➖Friction is result of the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact of each other.
➖The force of friction is dependent on the irregularities of the surface; if it is greater, then the friction will be greater and if it is smooth, then the friction will be lesser.
➖Effectively, the friction is result of the interlocking of irregularities in the two surfaces.
➖If the two surfaces in contact are pressed harder, then the force of friction will increase.
➖On a frictionless surface, if an object starts moving, it would not stop ever; Without friction, it is not possible to construct a building.
➖Friction produces heat; when a matchstick is rubbed against the rough surface, it catches fire.


Substances Reducing Friction
➖The substances that reduce friction are known as lubricants. E.g. when oil, grease, or graphite is applied between the moving part of a machine, then it creates a thin layer; resultantly, moving surfaces do not directly rub against each other that ultimately reduces friction.
➖When a body rolls over the surface of another body, the resistance to its motion is known as the rolling friction. The rolling reduces the force of friction.
➖The frictional force exerted by fluids is known as drag.
➖The frictional force, on an object in a fluid, is dependent on its speed with respect to the fluid.
➖The frictional force depends on the shape of the respective object and also on the nature of the fluid.
➖Fluid friction is minimized by giving suitable shapes to the bodies moving in fluids.


Concave Mirrors:
By reflection of light, concave mirrors give real, inverted images if the object is beyond the focus and a virtual, erect, enlarged image if the object has a distance less than the focal length from the pole of the mirror.

👉🏻 Uses of Concave Mirrors:
➖ Concave mirrors are used in torches, searchlights, and headlights of vehicles to get powerful parallel beams of light.
➖ Concave mirrors are also used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
➖ Dentists use concave mirrors to see bigger images of the teeth of the patients.
➖ Large concave mirrors are used to focus sunlight to produce heat in the solar furnaces.


Convex Mirrors:
By the reflection of light convex Mirrors always give a virtual, erect, diminished image of the object kept infront of the mirror.

👉🏻 Uses of Convex Mirrors:
➖ The convex mirror is used as a side-view mirror in vehicles to give a smaller view of the vehicles coming from behind.
➖ They are used in shops and supermarkets and any other place where there is a requirement for detecting burglars.
➖ Convex mirrors are used in making lenses for sunglasses.
➖ Convex mirrors are used in magnifying glasses, and telescopes.
➖ Convex mirrors are used to reflect street light; because they can reflect over a wide area.
➖ Convex mirrors are kept at the street corners to avoid collisions.

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🛑 RRB Technician Recruitment 2024: Official Notification

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☘️🌴Transportation in Plants☘️🌴

➖The plants have low energy needs, as they use relatively slow transport systems.
➖Plant transport systems move energy from leaves and raw materials from roots to all their parts.
➖The xylem (tissue) moves water and minerals obtained from the soil to all other parts of the plants.
➖The phloem (tissue) transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves (where they are synthesized) to other parts of the plant.


Movement of Water in Plants
➖Water moves into the root from the soil and then steady it moves into the root xylem, creating a column of water, which is progressively pushed upwards.
➖Evaporation of water molecules from the cells of a leaf (see the image given above) creates a suction process, which pulls water from the xylem cells of roots; this process keeps going on.
➖The loss of water in the form of vapor from the leaves (i.e. aerial parts) of the plant is known as transpiration.
➖Transpiration, likewise, helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
➖Transpiration also helps in the temperature regulation (in plants).
➖The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is known as translocation, which occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known as phloem.
➖Along with photosynthesis products, the phloem also transports amino acids and other substances, which are ultimately delivered to roots, fruits, seeds, and to growing organs.


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Structure of Parenchyma Cells

➖ It is a living cell
➖ It has
a prominent nucleus and protoplast
➖ The cells of parenchyma are isodiametric or polyhedral in shape. They may be polygonal, oval, round or elongated
➖ These cells are closely packed or may have small intercellular space
➖ They are made up of thin cell wall made up of cellulose, hemicellulose
➖ Plasmodesmata join the cells of the parenchyma tissue
➖ They have several small vacuoles. In the older parenchyma, smaller vacuoles merge to become a large central vacuole, which may accumulate anthocyanin or tannins
➖ Water is abundant in the vacuoles of the parenchyma cells that act as a water reservoir
➖ Storage parenchyma cells may have thick xyloglucan walls e.g. in the endosperm of the date palm. The sugar is used during germination and walls become thin
➖ The parenchyma cells of flowers and fruits contain chromoplasts
➖ Parenchyma cells may have a thick lignified wall that makes it difficult to differentiate it from sclerenchyma
➖ Hydraulic property of cells gives the parenchyma its mechanical strength
➖ Chloroplasts are present in the parenchyma cells that are specified to perform photosynthesis
➖ The parenchyma cells which perform a secretory function, have dense protoplasm that is rich in ribosomes, Golgi bodies and a highly developed endoplasmic reticulum


पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं की संरचना

➖ यह एक जीवित कोशिका है
➖ इसमें ए
क प्रमुख केंद्रक और प्रोटोप्लास्ट होता है
➖ पैरेन्काइमा की कोशिकाएँ आइसोडायमेट्रिक या पॉलीहेड्रल आकार की होती हैं। वे बहुभुज, अंडाकार, गोल या लम्बी हो सकते हैं
➖ ये कोशिकाएं सघन रूप से सटी हुई होती हैं या इनमें छोटी अंतरकोशिकीय जगह हो सकती है
➖ ये सेल्युलोज, हेमिसेल्यूलोज से बनी पतली कोशिका भित्ति से बने होते हैं
➖ प्लाज्मोडेसमाटा पैरेन्काइमा ऊतक की कोशिकाओं से जुड़ते हैं
➖ इनमें कई छोटी रसधानियाँ होती हैं। पुराने पैरेन्काइमा में, छोटे रिक्तिकाएं विलय होकर एक बड़ी केंद्रीय रसधानी बन जाती हैं, जो एंथोसायनिन या टैनिन जमा कर सकती हैं।
➖ पानी जलाशय के रूप में कार्य करने वाले पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं के रसधानी में पानी प्रचुर मात्रा में होता है
➖ भंडारण पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं में मोटी जाइलोग्लुकन दीवारें हो सकती हैं उदा। खजूर के एंडोस्पर्म में। अंकुरण के समय चीनी का उपयोग किया जाता है और दीवारें पतली हो जाती हैं
➖फूलों और फलों की मृदूतक कोशिकाओं में क्रोमोप्लास्ट होते हैं
➖ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं में एक मोटी लिग्निफाइड दीवार हो सकती है जिससे इसे स्क्लेरेन्काइमा से अलग करना मुश्किल हो जाता है
➖ कोशिकाओं का हाइड्रोलिक गुण पैरेन्काइमा को इसकी यांत्रिक शक्ति प्रदान करता है
➖ क्लोरोप्लास्ट पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाओं में मौजूद होते हैं जो प्रकाश संश्लेषण करने के लिए निर्दिष्ट होते हैं
➖ पैरेन्काइमा कोशिकाएं जो एक स्रावी कार्य करती हैं, उनमें घने प्रोटोप्लाज्म होते हैं जो राइबोसोम, गोल्गी निकायों और एक उच्च विकसित एंडोप्लाज्मिक रेटिकुलम से भरपूर होते हैं।

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