UPSC Environment Ecology Agriculture Notes

M. Laxmikanth and D.D. basu short notes for Prelims and Mains.

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#Environment

■ Potential and Prospects of Renewable Energy in Rural India-

✅India has made significant strides in renewable energy, with installed capacity increasing by 165% in the past decade—from 76.38 GW in 2014 to 203.1 GW in 2024.

✅With rural areas accounting for 67% of the population and contributing 37% to the GDP, renewable energy has the potential to drive inclusive development. Recognizing this, the government has prioritized energy expansion, allocating Rs 68,769 crores for the sector.

✅Initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana aim to install rooftop solar panels in one crore households, offering up to 300 units of free electricity per month.

✅Additionally, the National Green Hydrogen Mission targets an annual production of 5 million metric tonnes of green hydrogen by 2030, reinforcing India’s commitment to sustainable energy solutions.

● Why Rural India Needs Renewable Energy:

✅Despite India's economic growth, rural regions continue to struggle with inadequate infrastructure, particularly in electricity access.

✅An estimated 300 million people in rural India remain disconnected from the power grid, relying on inefficient and polluting sources such as kerosene lamps, diesel generators, and wood-fired stoves. These alternatives not only contribute to environmental damage but also pose serious health risks and financial burdens.

● Solar Energy: A Transformative Solution:

✅Solar power has emerged as a game-changer for rural electrification, thanks to its affordability and decentralized application. Key benefits include:

✅Localized Power Generation: Solar systems offer an efficient way to electrify remote areas where extending the grid is impractical.

✅Diverse Applications: Solar energy supports agriculture, improves healthcare services, enhances safety, and facilitates access to clean drinking water.

✅Boosting Rural Economy: Solar lighting enables extended work hours, leading to higher productivity and increased household incomes.

✅Sustainable Irrigation: Solar-powered pumps reduce dependence on diesel-based irrigation, which currently accounts for nearly 20% of India's to

✅100% FDI in Renewable Energy: Allows foreign investment under the automatic
approval route.

✅National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023): Aims to achieve 5 MMT of annual green hydrogen production by 2030.
Exemption from Inter-State Transmission Fees: Encourages inter-state trading of renewable
power.

✅Ultra Mega Renewable Energy Parks: Allocates land and infrastructure for large-scale clean energy projects.

✅PM-KUSUM Scheme: Promotes solar-powered agriculture to enhance energy security.

✅PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana: Invests Rs 75,021 crore to install rooftop solar systems in one crore households by FY27.

✅Green Energy Corridor Scheme: Expands transmission lines to facilitate renewable energy distribution.

✅Project Development Cell: Established to attract private investment in the sector.

✅Offshore Wind Energy Projects: Plans to set up 1 GW of offshore wind energy capacity along the Gujarat and TN coasts.

● Barriers to Renewable Energy Expansion:

✅Despite impressive growth, India’s renewable energy sector faces several hurdles:

✅High Land Costs: Acquiring, converting, and obtaining clearances for land remain expensive and time-consuming.
Consumer Skepticism: Despite incentives, concerns about the reliability of solar power persist.

✅Lower Efficiency of Domestic Solar Panels: Indian-made solar panels often lag behind international competitors in efficiency.

✅Environmental Limitations: Dust accumulation on solar panels reduces efficiency and impacts power generation.
Intermittent Energy Supply: Renewable power generation fluctuates due to weather conditions.

✅Grid Stability Challenges: Sudden spikes or drops in renewable energy production can destabilize the power grid.

✅Impact on Wildlife: Wind turbines pose risks to birds and bats, especially during migration.

✅Water Demand for Green Hydrogen: Large-scale hydrogen production requires significant water resources.

SOURCE - THE HINDU

#Environment

■ India’s First Comprehensive River Dolphin Survey -

✅Prime Minister Narendra Modi on March 3 released the findings of India’s first-ever comprehensive survey on riverine dolphins, covering both Gangetic and Indus dolphins.

✅Conducted between 2021 and 2023 across the Ganga and Brahmaputra River basins, the survey estimated an average of 6,324 Gangetic dolphins, with a range of 5,977 to 6,688.
However, only three Indus dolphins were found in the Beas River, Punjab.

✅The study highlights the urgent need for conservation efforts as these endangered species face threats from pollution, riverbed mining, habitat loss, declining prey, and climate change.

● Key Findings of the Survey:

✅The Wildlife Institute of India, under the Union Environment Ministry, conducted the survey across 28 rivers by boat and 30 rivers by road, covering major river channels and tributaries.

✅The surveyed stretches included:

✅1) Ganga basin: 7,109 km in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan.

✅2) Brahmaputra basin: 1,297 km, including the Subansiri, Kulsi, Beki, Kopili, and Barak tributaries.

✅3) Beas river: 101 km surveyed, detecting the only three Indus River dolphins in India.

✅The population breakdown estimated 3,275 dolphins in the Ganga’s main stem, 2,414 in its tributaries, 584 in the Brahmaputra’s main stem, and 51 in its tributaries.

✅Uttar Pradesh recorded the highest number of 2,397 dolphins, followed by Bihar (2,220), West Bengal (815), Jharkhand (162), Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh (95), and Punjab (3).

● Survey Methodology and Challenges:

✅River dolphins live in turbid waters, surfacing only briefly, making population estimation complex. According to the report, dolphins stay on the surface for just 1.26 seconds and dive for 107 seconds, leading to potential observer and availability errors.

✅To improve accuracy, the survey combined visual and acoustic methods:

✅1) Acoustic surveys: Used hydrophones to detect ‘dolphin clicks’ since dolphins rely on echolocation to navigate. Multiple hydrophones helped reduce observer errors and track individual dolphins.

✅2) Visual surveys: Different methods were employed based on river depth and width:

a) Double observer method for deep, wide channels.

b) Single boat method for narrow channels under 300m wide and 2m deep.

● Dolphin ‘Hotspots’ and ‘Coldspots’:

✅Certain river stretches showed high dolphin concentrations (hotspots), while others had low or no dolphins (coldspots).

● Coldspots:

✅Ganga River: A 366-km stretch from Narora to Kanpur had an extremely low encounter rate of 0.1 dolphins/km.

✅Farukkhabad-Kannauj (between Narora and Kanpur barrages) was also a coldspot.

✅Other coldspots include
Yamuna River
(Kaushambi-Chitrakoot); Sharda River (Pilibhit); Rapti River (Balrampur-Siddharth Nagar); and Barak River (Assam).

● Hotspots:

✅Bihar had the highest encounter rate of 1.62 dolphins/km, compared to 0.62 dolphins/km in Uttar Pradesh. The Chausa-Manihar stretch (590 km) recorded 2.20 dolphins/km, while the Manihari-Rajmahal stretch (Bihar-Jharkhand) had 2.75 dolphins/km.

✅In Assam, despite good water depth in the Brahmaputra’s main stem, tributaries had low depth, causing declining populations in Subansiri and Kulsi rivers.

● Conclusion:

✅The survey provides crucial insights into river dolphin populations in India, highlighting regional disparities in their distribution.

✅It underscores the importance of conservation efforts, improved habitat protection, and stricter pollution control measures to safeguard these endangered aquatic mammals.

SOURCE - INDIAN EXPRESS

M. Laxmikanth and D.D. basu short notes for Prelims and Mains.

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#Environment

■ Gharial Conservation: How Madhya Pradesh Leads the Effort -

✅Madhya Pradesh CM recently released 10 gharials into the Chambal River at the National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary in Morena. The state has emerged as a leader in gharial conservation, hosting over 80% of India’s gharials due to decades of dedicated efforts.

● What Are Gharials?

✅Gharials (Gavialis gangeticus) are long-snouted, fish-eating crocodilians named after the Hindi word ghara, referring to the bulbous snout tip of adult males. They are sacred in Indian mythology and often depicted as the divine mount of the goddess Ganga.

✅Their slender snouts, lined with interlocking teeth, are adapted to catch fish. Males grow between 3-6 meters, while females range from 2.6–4.5 meters.

✅Gharials mate from November to January, and sandbanks serve as critical nesting and basking sites. As river levels recede from March to May, females lay eggs in communal nests. They provide parental care for hatchlings in the initial days. These crocodilians play a crucial role in maintaining river ecosystems by cleaning up carrion.

● Why Were Gharials Released into the River?

✅To strengthen the gharial population, CM released nine males and one female into the Chambal River on February 17. Madhya Pradesh has the highest gharial population in India, with a 2024 census recording 2,456 individuals in the sanctuary.

✅India saw an 80% decline in gharials between the 1950s and 1960s. While global populations recovered until 1997, they declined by 58% between 1997 and 2006, with adult numbers
dropping from 436 to 182.

✅Wildlife experts suggest gharials are likely extinct in Myanmar and Bhutan, with small, uncertain populations in Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh’s upper Brahmaputra.

● Threats to Gharials:

✅Historically, overhunting for skins, trophies, eggs, and traditional medicine led to drastic declines.

✅Today, modern threats include dam construction, irrigation canals, river course changes, pollution, embankments, siltation, sand mining, and fishing. Gill nets remain a major hazard, killing gharials even in protected areas.

● Conservation Efforts:

✅Between 1975 and 1982, India established 16 captive breeding and release centres, along with five gharial sanctuaries. Currently, gharials primarily survive in five key refuges:

✅1) National Chambal Sanctuary (NCS)

✅2) Katerniaghat Sanctuary

✅3) Chitwan National Park

✅4) Son River Sanctuary

✅5) Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary

✅Conservation strategies include captive breeding, population monitoring, threat management (such as restricting sand mining), and engaging local communities in habitat protection.

✅An MP wildlife officer emphasized key measures like “stronger river protection, better environmental management, sandbank restoration, and community involvement.”

● Why is the Chambal Sanctuary Crucial?

✅Spanning three states, the Chambal sanctuary protects a 435-km stretch of one of India’s cleanest rivers. Apart from gharials, it is home to over 290 bird species, including the rare Indian Skimmer, which has 80% of its national population in this region.

✅The sanctuary has also aided gharial reintroduction in other states. Punjab’s rivers lost their gharial populations in the 1960s-70s. However, in 2017, gharials were sent from Chambal’s Deori Gharial Center to Punjab.

✅In 2018, 25 gharials were released into the Sutlej River, followed by another 25 into the Beas River in 2020.

● The Way Forward:

✅Madhya Pradesh’s success in gharial conservation showcases the importance of sustained efforts in protecting endangered species.

✅Continued habitat preservation, stricter enforcement against threats, and expansion of conservation programs can further secure the future of these unique crocodilians.

SOURCE - INDIAN EXPRESS

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#Environment

■ Potential and Prospects of Renewable Energy in Rural India-

✅India has made significant strides in renewable energy, with installed capacity increasing by 165% in the past decade—from 76.38 GW in 2014 to 203.1 GW in 2024.

✅With rural areas accounting for 67% of the population and contributing 37% to the GDP, renewable energy has the potential to drive inclusive development. Recognizing this, the government has prioritized energy expansion, allocating Rs 68,769 crores for the sector.

✅Initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana aim to install rooftop solar panels in one crore households, offering up to 300 units of free electricity per month.

✅Additionally, the National Green Hydrogen Mission targets an annual production of 5 million metric tonnes of green hydrogen by 2030, reinforcing India’s commitment to sustainable energy solutions.

● Why Rural India Needs Renewable Energy:

✅Despite India's economic growth, rural regions continue to struggle with inadequate infrastructure, particularly in electricity access.

✅An estimated 300 million people in rural India remain disconnected from the power grid, relying on inefficient and polluting sources such as kerosene lamps, diesel generators, and wood-fired stoves. These alternatives not only contribute to environmental damage but also pose serious health risks and financial burdens.

● Solar Energy: A Transformative Solution:

✅Solar power has emerged as a game-changer for rural electrification, thanks to its affordability and decentralized application. Key benefits include:

✅Localized Power Generation: Solar systems offer an efficient way to electrify remote areas where extending the grid is impractical.

✅Diverse Applications: Solar energy supports agriculture, improves healthcare services, enhances safety, and facilitates access to clean drinking water.

✅Boosting Rural Economy: Solar lighting enables extended work hours, leading to higher productivity and increased household incomes.

✅Sustainable Irrigation: Solar-powered pumps reduce dependence on diesel-based irrigation, which currently accounts for nearly 20% of India's to

✅100% FDI in Renewable Energy: Allows foreign investment under the automatic
approval route.

✅National Green Hydrogen Mission (2023): Aims to achieve 5 MMT of annual green hydrogen production by 2030.
Exemption from Inter-State Transmission Fees: Encourages inter-state trading of renewable
power.

✅Ultra Mega Renewable Energy Parks: Allocates land and infrastructure for large-scale clean energy projects.

✅PM-KUSUM Scheme: Promotes solar-powered agriculture to enhance energy security.

✅PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana: Invests Rs 75,021 crore to install rooftop solar systems in one crore households by FY27.

✅Green Energy Corridor Scheme: Expands transmission lines to facilitate renewable energy distribution.

✅Project Development Cell: Established to attract private investment in the sector.

✅Offshore Wind Energy Projects: Plans to set up 1 GW of offshore wind energy capacity along the Gujarat and TN coasts.

● Barriers to Renewable Energy Expansion:

✅Despite impressive growth, India’s renewable energy sector faces several hurdles:

✅High Land Costs: Acquiring, converting, and obtaining clearances for land remain expensive and time-consuming.
Consumer Skepticism: Despite incentives, concerns about the reliability of solar power persist.

✅Lower Efficiency of Domestic Solar Panels: Indian-made solar panels often lag behind international competitors in efficiency.

✅Environmental Limitations: Dust accumulation on solar panels reduces efficiency and impacts power generation.
Intermittent Energy Supply: Renewable power generation fluctuates due to weather conditions.

✅Grid Stability Challenges: Sudden spikes or drops in renewable energy production can destabilize the power grid.

✅Impact on Wildlife: Wind turbines pose risks to birds and bats, especially during migration.

✅Water Demand for Green Hydrogen: Large-scale hydrogen production requires significant water resources.

SOURCE - THE HINDU

#Environment

■ Record Olive Ridley Nesting in Odisha -

✅Nearly seven lakh Olive Ridley turtles laid eggs at the Rushikulya rookery in Odisha’s Ganjam district between February 16 and February 25, marking a significant conservation success.

✅This mass nesting event, known as arribada, follows a gap in 2024 when no large-scale nesting occurred. In comparison, around 6.37 lakh turtles nested at the same site in 2023.

● About Olive Ridley Turtles:

✅Olive Ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea)are the smallest and most abundant sea turtles worldwide. They are named for their olive-green, heart-shaped shells and inhabit warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. Growing up to two feet in length and weighing around 50 kg, their lifespan remains uncertain, though they reach maturity at about 14 years.

✅Despite their large population, Olive Ridleys face a significant decline. The Marine Turtle Specialist Group (MTSG) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports a 50% reduction in their population since the 1960s.

✅Key threats include egg collection, mass killing of nesting females, and unintentional entanglement in fishing gear, leading to drowning or severe injuries.

● The Phenomenon of Arribada:

✅Olive Ridleys are best known for their synchronized mass nesting, or arribada (Spanish for “arrival”). This unique behaviour, exclusive to the Lepidochelys genus, involves thousands of females nesting simultaneously on select beaches. Unlike other turtles that may nest in groups, no other species exhibit such large-scale synchronized nesting.

✅During an arribada event, over 600,000 females emerge over five to seven days to lay eggs. They create conical nests about one and a half feet deep using their hind flippers.

● Major Arribada Sites:

✅Olive Ridleys nest solitarily across approximately 40 countries, but arribada occurs at only a few select sites.

✅The largest mass nesting site is Odisha’s coast, particularly at Rushikulya and Gahirmatha, followed by nesting grounds in Mexico and Costa Rica. These sites provide ideal conditions with warm sandy beaches, a stable coastal ecosystem, and favourable weather.

✅According to marine science experts, turtles prefer beaches with a mild slope, medium width, and low salinity. Favourable coastal conditions, such as lower wind speeds, moderate waves, and southwest currents, make Odisha’s beaches ideal for large congregations of turtles.

● Reasons for the Record Nesting in 2025:

✅Experts attribute the record number of nesting Olive Ridleys this year to multiple factors, particularly weather and beach conditions.

✅According to a divisional forest officer in Berhampur, the absence of rain in February, prevented beach erosion and maintained ample space for nesting near the river mouth. Additionally, the beach gradient—its slope from land to water—was lower this year, making it more accessible for nesting turtles.

✅Moreover, a senior scientist at the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), confirmed that Rushikulya provided ample space for nesting, and similar mass nesting may soon occur at Gahirmatha.

✅He also noted that since the nesting happened in mid-February, more eggs are likely to hatch successfully. Nesting later in the season, particularly in April, often results in higher egg losses due to rising temperatures and coastal erosion.

● The Mystery of 2024’s Absence:

✅The absence of mass nesting in 2024 remains an unresolved ecological mystery. Experts explain that mass nesting is a biological phenomenon, and turtles sometimes skip nesting in certain years for unknown reasons.

✅While scientists continue to study this pattern, the resurgence of arribada in 2025 offers hope for Olive Ridley conservation and highlights the importance of protecting Odisha’s coastal ecosystems.

SOURCE - INDIAN EXPRESS

#Environment

■ Melting Arctic Glaciers: A
Hidden Source of Methane and Climate Risk-

✅A recent study has revealed that Arctic glaciers are releasing significant amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. Researchers found that glacial melt rivers and groundwater springs act as pathways for methane trapped beneath the ice to escape.

✅This previously unrecognized process may contribute to Arctic climate feedback, potentially accelerating global warming.

● Key Findings of the Study:

✅The study analyzed methane emissions from a small valley glacier in central Svalbard called Vallåkrabreen. Researchers examined methane levels in both groundwater springs and the melt river draining from the glacier.

✅Their findings were striking—methane concentrations in the melt river were up to 800 times higher than atmospheric equilibrium levels.

✅Importantly, the methane released was not produced by microbial activity beneath the ice but originated from thermogenic sources. This methane had been trapped in ancient geological formations for millions of years.

● Glacial Fracking: A New Concern:

✅According to researchers, glaciers function as giant lids that trap methane underground. However, as glaciers melt, water percolates through cracks in the bedrock, flushing the trapped gas to the surface in a process termed “glacial fracking.”

✅This mechanism resembles natural fracking, where underground gases are extracted through pressure-induced cracks.

● Methane’s Role in Global Warming:

✅Methane is a major driver of climate change, responsible for nearly 30% of global warming since pre-industrial times, second only to carbon dioxide.

✅Over a 20-year period, methane is approximately 80 times more potent in trapping heat than carbon dioxide, as reported by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

● Health and Environmental Risks:

✅Beyond its contribution to climate change, methane also plays a key role in the formation of ground-level ozone, a colourless and highly irritating gas.

✅Exposure to ground-level ozone is linked to severe health risks, with studies estimating that it contributes to nearly 1 million premature deaths globally each year.

● Rising Methane Levels:

✅Recent research has shown a dramatic rise in atmospheric methane levels. In 2022, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reported that methane levels had increased by 17 parts per billion in 2021, surpassing the previous record set in 2020.

✅While carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for much longer, methane is approximately 25 times more effective at trapping heat, making it a critical factor in the short-term acceleration of climate change.

● Conclusion:

✅Understanding the role of melting glaciers in methane emissions is crucial for assessing future climate risks, highlighting the urgent need for climate action to mitigate further warming.

SOURCE - INDIAN EXPRESS

#Environment

■ La Niña: The Ocean Cooling Phenomenon and Its Impact on India's Climate -

● Understanding La Niña:
A Cold Oceanic Event

✅La Niña, meaning “little girl” in Spanish, is part of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and is characterized by unusually cold sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.

✅It occurs when the trade winds strengthen, causing cold waters to rise in the eastern Pacific, leading to cooler temperatures along the South American coast and increased rainfall in areas such as Australia and India.

✅La Niña contrasts with El Niño, which is characterized by warmer-than-normal ocean temperatures and often leads to droughts and weather disturbances.

● Impact of La Niña:
Shaping India's Monsoon and Agricultural Landscape

✅The last occurrence of La Niña, from 2020-2023, resulted in normal to above-normal rainfall during India’s monsoon season, benefiting Kharif crop growth in most regions, although some areas in the north and northeast experienced below-average rainfall.

✅La Niña’s impact on India is especially pronounced in terms of monsoon patterns, where it typically results in enhanced rainfall. However, regions like northern and northeastern India often experience deficits in rainfall.

✅The delayed onset of La Niña this year may lead to weaker monsoon conditions and an increase in heat during the summer months, potentially disrupting the agricultural calendar and the overall climate stability.

● The Current La Niña Situation:
What’s at Stake?

✅Meteorologists have reported a slowing or stalling of La Niña conditions, which has contributed to January 2025 being the warmest January on record globally, with temperatures 0.79°C above the 1991-2020 average.

✅Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) in the central Pacific are below average, indicating that La Niña conditions are weakening, while SSTs in other regions remain higher than usual.

✅Japan’s meteorological department noted no clear indication of either El Niño or La Niña but mentioned that some La Niña traits are emerging.

● La Niña Uncertainty:
Potential Risks for India's Monsoon and Agriculture

✅La Niña was expected to develop by mid-2024 but meteorologists now predict only a 57-60% chance of it fully manifesting.

✅If La Niña fails to fully develop, India may experience a weaker monsoon season with reduced rainfall, more intense summer heat, and diminished tropical cyclone activity in the Bay of Bengal.

✅Such conditions could disrupt agricultural cycles, especially during the Kharif season, and pose challenges for water management and food security across the country.

● Conclusion:

✅The potential weakening of La Niña could lead to a hotter, drier summer and a weaker monsoon in India, impacting agriculture, the environment, and the economy. Continuous monitoring of La Niña's developments is essential to mitigate its effects and adapt to the evolving climate conditions.

SOURCE - THE HINDU

#Environment

■ La Niña's Cooling Effect Fails to Offset Record January Temperatures -

✅January 2025 was the hottest January on record, with global average surface air temperature rising 1.75°C above the pre-industrial level (1850-1900), according to Europe’s Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S).

✅Despite the emergence of La Niña conditions, which typically have a cooling effect, temperatures remained exceptionally high. It was the 18th month in the last 19 when global average temperatures exceeded the 1.5°C threshold. Scientists had anticipated some relief from La Niña, but this did not occur.

● Understanding La Niña and ENSO:

✅La Niña is part of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a climate phenomenon affecting global weather by altering sea temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.

✅ENSO has three phases—El Niño (warm), La Niña (cool), and neutral—occurring in irregular cycles of two to seven years.

✅During La Niña, strong trade winds push warm water westward, leading to cooler-than-average temperatures in the eastern Pacific. While La Niña generally lowers global temperatures, its effects can vary depending on intensity and duration.

● Why La Niña Did Not Cool January 2025 Temperatures-

✅Every La Niña phase is unique, and its impact on global temperatures differs each time. The ongoing La Niña cycle is relatively weak, partly due to its late emergence in December 2024 instead of the expected September.

✅According to the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), ENSO events typically peak during the Northern Hemisphere winter, and the delayed onset left little time for La Niña to strengthen. Weaker La Niña events exert less influence over temperature and precipitation patterns.

✅Additionally, the rapid rise in atmospheric carbon levels in 2024 and January 2025 contributed to sustained warming. Strong La Niña events usually promote extra rainfall, leading to increased plant growth, which helps absorb carbon from the atmosphere. However, the current weak La Niña has not facilitated such carbon absorption.

✅Another factor is the reduction of atmospheric aerosols due to cleaner air policies. Aerosols help cool the atmosphere by reflecting solar radiation, and their decline may have contributed to persistent high temperatures.

● Significance of Rising Global Temperatures:

✅A single warm January does not determine long-term climate trends, but it suggests that natural cooling cycles may be losing their ability to regulate global temperatures. This highlights the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

✅In 2024, atmospheric GHG levels reached their highest recorded annual concentration, according to C3S. Without drastic emissions reductions, the effectiveness of natural climate regulators like La Niña will continue to diminish, exacerbating global warming.

SOURCE - INDIAN EXPRESS